Academic and Post-Academic Research, and National Development

Useful arts, that is tools and crafts, developed by early civilizations, have evolved to become present day technologies. Archaeologists have given us evidence of the use of tools and practice of crafts by humans belonging to ancient civilizations, but it is difficult to say when and where the concept of scientific inquiry originated. Attribution of its origin to any particular civilization can be challenged. However, one attribute, that is delinking of scientific inquiry from practical arts, is common across all ancient civilizations. Practical arts were pursued by those who were dependent on them for their livelihood, while well-off elites were pursuing knowledge for the sake of knowledge. Only physicians were in a different category. They studied human anatomy and physiology with the objective of developing cures for diseases and surgical means for healing wounds and fractures.