Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences

Open Access Open Access  Restricted Access Subscription Access
Open Access Open Access Open Access  Restricted Access Restricted Access Subscription Access

Drug Abuse: A Curse for Human Society


Affiliations
1 Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Kurud, Bhilai-(Chhattisgarh), India
2 2GD Rungta College of Science and Technology Kurud, Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), India
     

   Subscribe/Renew Journal


Drug addiction is a therapeutic condition, a chronic relapsing disease. As in other domains of experimental medicine, appropriate experimental investigations are needed in order to better understand the disease. People with an addiction do not have control over what they are doing, taking or using. Their addiction may reach a point at which it is harmful. Addictions do not only include physical things we consume, such as drugs or alcohol, but may include virtually anything, such abstract things as gambling to seemingly harmless products, such as chocolate - in other words, addiction may refer to a substance dependence (e.g. drug addiction) or behavioural addiction (e.g. gambling addiction).However, to understand the diverse facets of drug effects and of the underlying pathophysiology it is necessary to keep in mind the complexity of the psychopathological processes. The main symptoms that characterize addiction correspond to expressions of dysfunctions within specific circuits and regions. Pathways to addiction are numerous and comorbidity and in the real world poly-drug use are common.The study show that so many molecules and formulations are present in the market that used as drug addiction like codein phasphte syrup, alprazolam tablet, pentazocine injection, combination of gandapuro tel and turpine tel ointment, lorazepam tablet, pheniramine maleate, nitrazepam tablet.

Keywords

Drug Addiction, Humanity, Curse, Market Trends.
Subscription Login to verify subscription
User
Notifications
Font Size


  • Ahmed, S.H., Kenny, P.J., Koob, G.F., Markou, A., 2002. Neurobio- logical evidence for hedonic allostasis associated with escalating cocaine use. Nat. Neurosci. 5, 625-626.

  • American Psychiatric Association, 1994. Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC.

  • Arnsten, A.F., Li, B.M., 2005. Neurobiology of executive1. Ahmed, S.H., Kenny, P.J., Koob, G.F., Markou, A., 2002. Neurobio- logical evidence for hedonic allostasis associated with escalating cocaine use. Nat. Neurosci. 5, 625-626. functions: catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical functions. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 1377-1384.

  • Aston-Jones, G., Harris, G.C., 2004. Brain substrates for increased drug seeking during protracted withdrawal. Neuropharmacology 47 (Suppl 1), 167-179.

  • Aston-Jones, G., Delfs, J.M., Druhan, J., Zhu, Y., 1999. The bed nucleus of the striaterminalis: a target site for noradrenergic actions in opiate withdrawal. In: McGinty, J.F. (Ed.), Advancing from the Ventral Striatum to the Extended Amygdala: Implications for Neuropsychaitry and Drug Abuse. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Academy of Sciences, New York, pp. 486-498.

  • Aytaclar, S., Tarter, R.E., Kirisci, L., Lu, S., 1999. Association between hyperactivity and executive cognitive functioning in childhood and substance use in early adolescence. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psych. 38, 172-178.

  • Barrot, M., Marinelli, M., Abrous, D.N., Rouge-Pont, F., Le Moal, M., Piazza, P.V., 2000. The dopaminergic hyperresponsiveness of the shell of the nucleus accumbens is hormonedependent. Eur. J. Neurosci. 12, 973-979.

  • Bartlett, E., Hallin, A., Chapman, B., Angrist, B., 1997. Selective sensitization to the psychosis-inducing effects of cocaine: a possible marker for addiction relapse vulnerability? Neuropsychopharmacology 16, 77-82.

  • Baumeister, R.F., Heatherton, T.F., Tice, D.M., 1994. Losing Control: How and Why People Fail at Self-Regulation. Academic Press, San Diego.

  • Bechara, A., 2005. Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neurocognitive perspective. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 1458-1463.

  • Berridge, K.C., Robinson, T.E., 1998. What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 28, 309-369.

  • Breiter, H.C., Gollub, R.L., Weisskoff, R.M., Kennedy, D.N.,Makris, N., Berke, J.D., Goodman, J.M., Kantor, H.L., Gastfriend, D.R., Riorden, J.P., Mathew, R.T., Rosen, B.R., Hyman, S.E., 1997. Acute effects of cocaine on human brain activity and emotion. Neuron 19, 591-611.

  • Caine, S.B., 1998. Cocaine abuse: hard knocks for the dopamine hypothesis? Nat. Neurosci. 1, 90-92.

  • Cardinal, R.N., Parkinson, J.A., Hall, J., Everitt, B.J., 2002. Emotion and motivation: the role of the amygdala, ventral striatum, and prefrontal cortex. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 26, 321-352.

  • Celerier, E., Laulin, J.P., Corcuff, J.B., Le Moal, M., Simonnet, G., 2001. Progressive enhancement of delayed hyperalgesia induced by repeated heroin administration: a sensitization process. J. Neu- rosci. 21, 4074-4080.

  • Chassin, L., Presson, C.C., Sherman, S.J., Edwards, D.A., 1990. The natural history of cigarette smoking: predicting youngadultsmoking outcomes from adolescent smoking patterns. Health Psychol. 9, 701-716.

  • Contarino, A., Zanotti, A., Drago, F., Natolino, F., Lipartiti, M., Giusti, P., 1997. Conditioned place preference: no tolerance to the rewarding properties of morphine. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmacol. 355, 589-594.

  • Covington III, H.E., Miczek, K.A., 2001. Repeated socialdefeatstress, cocaine or morphine. Effects on behavioral sensitization and intravenous cocaine self-administration binges Q. Psycho- pharmacology 158, 388-398.

  • Crowley, T.J., Macdonald, M.J., Whitmore, E.A., Mikulich, S.K., 1998. Cannabis dependence, withdrawal, and reinforcing effects among adolescents with conduct symptoms and substance use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend. 50, 27-37.

  • D'Amato, M.R., 1974. Derived motives. Ann. Rev. Psychol. 25,83-106. Dalley, J.W., Cardinal, R.N., Robbins, T.W., 2004. Prefrontal executive and cognitive functions in rodents: neural and neurochemical substrates. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 28, 771- 784.Dawes, M.A., Tarter, R.E., Kirisci, L., 1997. Behavioral selfregulation: correlates and 2 year follow-ups for boys at risk for substance abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 45, 165-176.

  • De Wit, H., Uhlenhuth, E.H., Johanson, C.E., 1986. Individual differences in the reinforcing and subjective effects of amphetamine and diazepam. Drug Alcohol Depend. 16, 341-360.

  • Delfs, J.M., Zhu, Y., Druhan, J.P., Aston-Jones, G., 2000. Noradren- aline in the ventral forebrain is critical for opiate withdrawal- induced aversion. Nature 403, 430-434.

  • Deminière, J.M., Piazza, P.V., Guegan, G., Abrous, N., Maccari, S., Le Moal, M., Simon, H., 1992. Increased locomotor response to novelty and propensity to intravenous amphetamine selfadministration in adult offspring of stressed mothers. Brain Res. 586, 135-139.

  • Deroche, V., Le Moal, M., Piazza, P.V., 1999. Cocaine selfadministration increases the incentive motivational properties of the drug in rats. Eur. J. Neurosci. 11, 2731-2736.

  • Deroche-Gamonet, V., Belin, D., Piazza, P.V., 2004. Evidence foraddiction-like behavior in the rat. Science 305, 1014-1017.

  • Eddy, N.B., Halbach, H., Isbell, H., Seevers, M.H., 1965. Drug dependence: its significance and characteristics. Bull. World Health Organ. 32, 721-733.

  • Erb, S., Stewart, J., 1999. A role for the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, but not the amygdala, in the effects of corticotrophin releasing factor on stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. J. Neurosci. 19, RC35.

  • Erb, S., Hitchcott, P.K., Rajabi, H., Mueller, D., Shaham, Y., Stewart, J., 2000. Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists block stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. Neuropsychopharmacology 23, 138-150.

  • Everitt, B.J., Robbins, T.W., 2005. Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: from actions to habits to compulsion. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 1481-1489.

  • Gaiardi, M., Bartoletti, M., Bacchi, A., Gubellini, C., Costa, M., Babbini, M., 1991. Role of repeated exposure to morphine in determining its affective properties: place and taste condition- ing studies in rats. Psychopharmacology 103, 183-186.

  • Giancola, P.R., Moss, H.B., Martin, C.S., Kirisci, L., Tarter, R.E., 1996. Executive cognitive functioning predicts reactive aggression in boys at high risk for substance abuse: a prospective study. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 20, 740-744.

  • Glantz, M.D., 1999. Drug Abuse: Origins Abuse: Origins and Interventions. American Psychological Association, Washington DC.

  • Glantz, M.D., Pickens, R.W., 1992. Vulnerability to Drug Abuse. American Psychological Association, Washington DC.

  • Goeders, N.E., 1997. A neuroendocrine role in cocaine reinforcement. Psychoneuroendocrinology 22, 237-259.

  • Goeders, N.E., 2002. Stress and cocaine addiction. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 301, 785-789.

  • Grant, B.F., Dawson, D.A., 1998. Age of onset of drug use and its association with DSM-IV drug abuse and dependence: results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. J. Subst. Abuse 10, 163-173.

  • Grant, B.F., Hasin, D.S., Chou, S.P., Stinson, F.S., Dawson, D.A., 2004a. Nicotine dependence and psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 1107-1115.

  • Grant, B.F., Stinson, F.S., Dawson, D.A., Chou, S.P., Dufour, M.C., Compton, W., Pickering, R.P., Kaplan, K., 2004b. Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 807-816.

  • Harfstrand, A., Fuxe, K., Cintra, A., Agnati, L.F., Zini, I., Wikstrom, A. C., Okret, S., Yu, Z.Y., Goldstein, M., Steinbusch, H., et al., 1986. Glucocorticoid receptor immune reactivity in monoaminergic neurons of rat brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 83, 9779-9783.

  • Harris, G.C., Aston-Jones, G., 2003. Enhanced morphine preference following prolonged abstinence: association with increased Fos expression in the extended amygdala. Neuropsychopharmacol- ogy 28, 292-299.

  • Heilig, M., Koob, G.F., Ekman, R., Britton, K.T., 1994. Corticotropin- releasing factor and neuropeptide Y: role in emotional integration. Trends Neurosci. 17, 80-85.

  • Himmelsbach, C.K., 1943. Can the euphoric, analgetic and physical dependence effects of drugs be separated? IV. With reference to physical dependence. Fed. Proceed. 2, 201-203.

  • Hingson, R., Heeren, T., Zakocs, R., Winter, M., Wechsler, H., 2003. Age of first intoxication, heavy drinking, driving after drinking and risk of unintentional injury among U.S. college students. J. Stud. Alcohol 64, 23-31.

  • Hoffman, H.S., Solomon, R.L., 1974. An opponentprocess theory of motivation. III. Some affective dynamics in imprinting. Learn. Motivation 5, 149-164.

  • Hyman, S.E., Malenka, R.C., Nestler, E.J., 2006. Neural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 29, 568-598.

  • Kalivas, P.W., Duffy, P., 1988. Effects of daily cocaine and morphine treatment on somatodendritic and terminal field dopamine release. J. Neurochem. 50, 1498-1504.

  • Kalivas, P.W., Duffy, P., 1993. Time course of extracellular dopamine and behavioral sensitization to cocaine. I. Dopamine axon terminals. J. Neurosci. 13, 266-275.

  • Kandel, D.B., Jessor, R., 2002. The gateway hypothesis revisited. In: Kandel, D.B. (Ed.), Stages and pathways of drugs involvement: examining the gateway hypothesis. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 365-372.

  • Karkowski, L.M., Prescott, C.A., Kendler, K.S., 2000. Multivariate assessment of factors influencing illicit substance use in twins from female-female pairs. Am. J. Med. Genet. 96, 665-670.

  • Kelley, A.E., 2004. Ventral striatal control of appetitive motivation: role in ingestive behavior and reward-relatedlearning. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 27, 765-776.

  • Kenny, P.J., Polis, I., Koob, G.F., Markou, A., 2003. Low dosecocaine self-administration transiently increases but high dose cocaine persistently decreases brain reward function in rats. Eur. J. Neurosci. 17, 191-195.

  • Khantzian, E.J., 1985. The self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: focus on heroin and cocaine dependence. Am. J. Psychiatry 142, 1259-1264.

  • Khantzian, E.J., 1990. Self-regulation and self-medication factors in alcoholism and the addictions: similarities and differences. In: Galanter, M. (Ed.), Combined alcohol and other drug dependence. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 255-271.

  • Khantzian, E.J., 1997. The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: a reconsideration and recent applications. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 4, 231-244.

  • Kolta, M.G., Shreve, P., De Souza, V., Uretsky, N.J., 1985. Time course of the development of the enhanced behavioral and biochemical responses to amphetamine after pretreatment with amphetamine. Neuropharmacology 24, 823-829.

  • Koob, G.F., 1999. Corticotropin-releasing factor, norepinephrine, and stress. Biol. Psychiatry 46, 1167-1180.

  • Koob, G.F., Bloom, F.E., 1988. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of drug dependence. Science 242, 715-723.

  • Koob, G.F., Le Moal, M., 1997. Drug abuse: hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science 278, 52-58.

  • Koob, G.F., Le Moal, M., 2001. Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis. Neuropsychopharmacology 24, 97-129.

  • Koob, G.F., Le Moal, M., 2004. Drug addiction and allostasis. In: Schulkin, J. (Ed.), Allostasis, homeostais and the costs of physiological adaptation. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 150-163.

  • Le Moal, M., 2005a. Neurobiology of Addiction. Elsevier. 570 pp. Koob, G.F., Le Moal, M., 2005b. Plasticity of reward neurocircuitry and

  • the 'dark side' of drug addiction. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 1442- 1444. Kreek, M.J., Koob, G.F., 1998. Drug dependence: stress and dysregula- tion of brain reward pathways. Drug Alcohol Depend. 51, 23-47. Larcher, A., Laulin, J.P., Celerier, E., Le Moal, M., Simonnet, G.,

  • 1998. Acute tolerance associated with a single opiate administration: involvement of N-methyl-D-aspartate-dependent pain facilitatory systems. Neuroscience 84, 583-589.

  • Laulin, J.P., Larcher, A., Celerier, E., Le Moal, M., Simonnet, G., 1998.Long-lasting increased pain sensitivity in rat following exposure to heroin for the first time. Eur. J. Neurosci. 10, 782- 785.

  • Laulin, J.P., Celerier, E., Larcher, A., Le Moal, M., Simonnet, G., 1999. Opiate tolerance to daily heroin administration: an apparent phenomenon associated with enhanced pain sensitivity. Neuroscience 89, 631-636.

  • Laviolette, S.R., van der Kooy, D., 2003. Blockade of mesolimbic dopamine transmission dramatically increases sensitivity to the rewarding effects of nicotine in the ventral tegmental area. Mol. Psychiatry 8, 50-59.

  • Le Moal, M., Stinus, L., Simon, H., 1979. Increased sensitivity to (+) amphetamine self-administered by rats following mesocorticolimbic dopamine neurone destruction. Nature 280, 156- 158.

  • Leri, F., Flores, J., Rodaros, D., Stewart, J., 2002. Blockade of stress- induced but not cocaine-induced reinstatement by infusion of noradrenergic antagonists into the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis or the central nucleus of the amygdala. J. Neurosci. 22, 5713-5718.

  • Lett, B.T., 1989. Repeated exposures intensify rather than diminish the rewarding effects of amphetamine, morphine, and cocaine. Psychopharmacology 98, 357-362.

  • Mao, J., 1999. NMDA and opioid receptors: their interactions in antinociception, tolerance and neuroplasticity. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 30, 289-304.

  • Mao, J., Price, D.D., Mayer, D.J., 1994. Thermal hyperalgesia in association with the development of morphine tolerance in rats: roles of excitatory amino acid receptors and protein kinase C. J. Neurosci. 14, 2301-2312.

  • Mao, J., Sung, B., Ji, R.R., Lim, G., 2002. Chronic morphine induces downregulation of spinal glutamate transporters: implications in morphine tolerance and abnormal pain sensitivity. J. Neurosci. 22, 8312-8323.

  • Markou, A., Koob, G.F., 1991. Postcocaine anhedonia. An animal model of cocaine withdrawal. Neuropsychopharmacology 4, 17-26.

  • Martin, W.R., 1968. A homeostatic and redundancy theory of tolerance to and dependence on narcotic analgesics. In: Wikler, A. (Ed.), The Addictive States. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. 206-225.

  • Martin, W.R., Eades, C.G., 1960. A comparative study of the effect of drugs on activating and vasomotor responses evoked by midbrain stimulation: atropine, pentobarbital, chlorpromazine and chlorpromazine sulfoxide. Psychopharmacologia 1, 303-335.

  • McLellan, A.T., Woody, G.E., Metzger, D., McKay, J., Durrell, J., Alterman, A.I., O'Brien, C.P., 1996. Evaluating the effectiveness of addiction treatments: reasonable expectations, appropriate comparisons. Milbank Q. 74, 51-85.

  • McLellan, A.T., Lewis, D.C., O'Brien, C.P., Kleber, H.D., 2000. Drug dependence, a chronic medical illness: implications for treatment, insurance, and outcomes evaluation. JAMA 284, 1689-1695.

  • Merikangas, K.R., Mehta, R.L., Molnar, B.E., Walters, E.E., Swendsen, J.D., Aguilar-Gaziola, S., Bijl, R., Borges, G., Caraveo-Anduaga, J.J., DeWit, D.J., Kolody, B., Vega, W.A., Wittchen, H.U., Kessler, R.C., 1998. Comorbidity of substance use disorders with mood and anxiety disorders: results of the International Consortium in Psychiatric Epidemiology. Addict Behav. 23, 893-907.

  • Meyer, R.E., 1996. The disease called addiction: emerging evidence in a 200-year debate. Lancet 347, 162-166.

  • Miller, E.K., Cohen, J.D., 2001. An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 24, 167-202.

  • Mogenson, G.J., Jones, D.L., Yim, C.Y., 1980. From motivation to action: functional interface between the limbic system and the motor system. Prog. Neurobiol. 14, 69-97.

  • Nelson, J.E., Pearson, H.W., Sayers, M., Glynn, T.J., 1982. In: Nelson, J.E., Pearson, H.W., Sayers, M., Glynn, T.J. (Eds.), Guide to Drug Abuse Research Terminology. National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville MD.

  • Nestler, E.J., 2001. Molecular basis of long-term plasticity underly- ing addiction. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2, 119-128.

  • Nestler, E.J., 2004. Historical review: molecular and cellular mechanisms of opiate and cocaine addiction. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 25, 210-218.

  • O'Brien, C.P., McLellan, A.T., 1996. Myths about the treatment of addiction. Lancet 347, 237-240.

  • O'Brien, C.P., Ternes, J.M., Ehrman, R.N., 1987. In: Kalivas, P.W., Samson, H.H. (Eds.), Classical Conditioning in Human Drug Dependence. Academic Press, Orlando, pp. 329-356.

  • O'Brien, C.P., Volkow, N., Li, T.K., 2006. What's in a word? Addiction versus dependence in DSM-V. Am. J. Psychiatry 163, 764-765.

  • Olson, V.G., Heusner, C.L., Bland, R.J., During, M.J., Weinshenker, D., Palmiter, R.D., 2006. Role of noradrenergic signaling by the nucleus tractus solitarius in mediating opiate reward. Science 311,1017-1020.Parsons,

  • L.H., Justice Jr., J.B., 1993. Serotonin and dopamine sensitization in the nucleus accumbens, ventraltegmental area, and dorsal raphe nucleus following repeated cocaine administration. J. Neurochem. 61, 1611-1619.


Abstract Views: 308

PDF Views: 2




  • Drug Abuse: A Curse for Human Society

Abstract Views: 308  |  PDF Views: 2

Authors

Mukesh Sharma
Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Kurud, Bhilai-(Chhattisgarh), India
Kushagra Nagori
Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Kurud, Bhilai-(Chhattisgarh), India
Shubhang Agrawal
Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Kurud, Bhilai-(Chhattisgarh), India
Vinay S. Verma
Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Kurud, Bhilai-(Chhattisgarh), India
Hemendra Swarnakar
Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Kurud, Bhilai-(Chhattisgarh), India
Sanjay Vaishnav
Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Kurud, Bhilai-(Chhattisgarh), India
Md. Nazir
Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Kurud, Bhilai-(Chhattisgarh), India
Nasim Khan
Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Kurud, Bhilai-(Chhattisgarh), India
Ajay Singh
2GD Rungta College of Science and Technology Kurud, Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), India

Abstract


Drug addiction is a therapeutic condition, a chronic relapsing disease. As in other domains of experimental medicine, appropriate experimental investigations are needed in order to better understand the disease. People with an addiction do not have control over what they are doing, taking or using. Their addiction may reach a point at which it is harmful. Addictions do not only include physical things we consume, such as drugs or alcohol, but may include virtually anything, such abstract things as gambling to seemingly harmless products, such as chocolate - in other words, addiction may refer to a substance dependence (e.g. drug addiction) or behavioural addiction (e.g. gambling addiction).However, to understand the diverse facets of drug effects and of the underlying pathophysiology it is necessary to keep in mind the complexity of the psychopathological processes. The main symptoms that characterize addiction correspond to expressions of dysfunctions within specific circuits and regions. Pathways to addiction are numerous and comorbidity and in the real world poly-drug use are common.The study show that so many molecules and formulations are present in the market that used as drug addiction like codein phasphte syrup, alprazolam tablet, pentazocine injection, combination of gandapuro tel and turpine tel ointment, lorazepam tablet, pheniramine maleate, nitrazepam tablet.

Keywords


Drug Addiction, Humanity, Curse, Market Trends.

References